Computer Hardware and Fundamentals

Computer Hardware and Fundamentals

Research Study

(Computer Hardware and Fundamentals)

Charles V. Villaro

BSCpE12M1

Mr.Rodrigo Calapan

Table of Contents

I. Occupational Health & Safety Standards
II. Computer Fundamental
III. Computer Hardware
IV. Computer Software
V. Operating Systems
VI. Technical People
VII. Electricity & Power Supply
VIII. Parts Of the Computer

• Motherboard parts and functions 
• Hard Disk Drive parts and functions 
• Floppy Disk Drive parts and functions 
• USB Flash Drive parts and functions 
• Compact Disk parts and functions 
• Digital Versatile Disk 
• Blu-ray Disk 

IX. CMOS Manipulation
X. Beep Codes and Error Messages
XI. Network Cabling
XII. Computer Networking
XIII. Network Topology
XIV. Date/Resource Sharing
XV. Latest Gadgets

XVI. References

I.Occupational Health and Safety Standards



1. Remove your watch and other jewelry and secure loose clothing
2. Turn off the power and unplug the equipment before opening the case
3. Cover any sharp objects inside the system case with tape
4. Never open a monitor or a power supply
5. Do not touch areas in printer that are hot, or use high voltage
6. Know where the fire extinguisher is located and how to use it
7. Know where the first aid kit is located
8. Keep your foods and beverages out of your work space
9. Keep your work space clean and free form clutter
10. Bend your knees when lifting heavy object to avoid back injury


II. Computer Fundamental

Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the user and processes these data under the control of set of instructions(called program) and gives the result(output) and saves output for the future use. It can process both numerical and non-numerical(arithmetic and logical) calculations

III. Computer Hardware

Computer hardware equals the collection of physical elements that comprise a computer system. Computer hardware refers to the physical parts or components of a computer such as monitor, keyboard, Computer data storage, hard drive disk, mouse, printers, CPU (graphic cards, sound cards, memory, motherboard and chips), etc all of which are physical objects that you can actually touch. In contrast, software is untouchable. Software exists as ideas, application, concepts, and symbols, but it has no substance. A combination of hardware and software forms a usable computing system.

IV. Computer Software

Software includes all the various forms and roles that digitally stored data may have and play in a computer (or similar system), regardless of whether the data is used as code for a CPU, or other interpreter, or whether it represents other kinds of information. Software thus encompasses a wide array of products that may be developed using different techniques such as ordinary programming languages, scripting languages, microcode, or an FPGA configuration.


The types of software include web pages developed in languages and frameworks like HTML,PHP, Perl, JSP, ASP.NET, XML, and desktop applications like OpenOffice.org, Microsoft Word developed in languages like C, C++, Objective-C, Java, C#, or Small talk. Application software usually runs on an underlying software operating systems such as Linux or Microsoft Windows. Software (or firmware) is also used in video games and for the configurable parts of the logic systems of automobiles, televisions, and other consumer electronics.

Practical computer systems divide software systems into three major classes:system software, programming software and application software, although the distinction is arbitrary, and often blurred.


V. Operating Systems

An operating system (OS) is a collection of software that manages computer hardware resources and provides common services for computer programs. The operating system is a vital component of the system software in a computer system. Application programs usually require an operating system to function.


Time-sharing operating systems schedule tasks for efficient use of the system and may also include accounting for cost allocation of processor time, mass storage, printing, and other resources.


For hardware functions such as input and output and memory allocation, the operating system acts as an intermediary between programs and the computer hardware, although the application code is usually executed directly by the hardware and will frequently make a system call to an OS function or be interrupted by it. Operating systems can be found on almost any device that contains a computer—from cellular phones and video game consoles to supercomputers and web servers.


Examples of popular modern operating systems include Android, BSD, iOS, Linux, Mac OS X, Microsoft Windows, Windows Phone, and IBM z/OS. All these, except Windows and z/OS, share roots in UNIX.


Real-time


A real-time operating system is a multitasking operating system that aims at executing real-time applications. Real-time operating systems often use specialized scheduling algorithms so that they can achieve a deterministic nature of behavior. The main objective of real-time operating systems is their quick and predictable response to events. They have an event-driven or time-sharing design and often aspects of both. An event-driven system switches between tasks based on their priorities or external events while time-sharing operating systems switch tasks based on clock interrupts.


Multi-user


A multi-user operating system allows multiple users to access a computer system at the same time. Time-sharing systems and Internet servers can be classified as multi-user systems as they enable multiple-user access to a computer through the sharing of time. Single-user operating systems have only one user but may allow multiple programs to run at the same time.


Multi-tasking vs. single-tasking


A multi-tasking operating system allows more than one program to be running at a time, from the point of view of human time scales. A single-tasking system has only one running program. Multi-tasking can be of two types: pre-emptive and co-operative. In pre-emptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time and dedicates one slot to each of the programs. Unix-like operating systems such as Solaris and Linux support pre-emptive multitasking, as does AmigaOS. Cooperative multitasking is achieved by relying on each process to give time to the other processes in a defined manner. 16-bit versions of Microsoft Windows used cooperative multi-tasking. 32-bit versions of both Windows NT and Win9x, used pre-emptive multi-tasking. Mac OS prior to OS X used to support cooperative multitasking.


Distributed


A distributed operating system manages a group of independent computers and makes them appear to be a single computer. The development of networked computers that could be linked and communicate with each other gave rise to distributed computing. Distributed computations are carried out on more than one machine. When computers in a group work in cooperation, they make a distributed system.


Embedded


Embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy. They are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design. Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems.


VI. Technical People


I have learned a few tricks from countless hours on technical support phone calls. The difference between a quick and helpful session and a painful and useless one is often as much a function of what you do as what the person at the other end of the line does. Try the following tips to increase your chances of success:


PC When You Call: Sometimes in a troubleshooting session, the technical support person may require some information that you don't have, or will want you to perform a test or procedure. You should therefore always be at the PC when you make the technical support call. If you try to call from somewhere else, you greatly limit the technician's ability to help you.
Control The Call: Be specific about what it is you want. Make sure that the conversation stays on that topic, and don't be distracted into idle chit-chat if possible.
Have Your System Information Ready: Prepare system information in advance that you are likely to be asked about, before you call. The kinds of information you would typically expect to be asked for are described here.
Be Patient: Remember that you may have been working on your specific problem for two days, but the other person is just hearing about it. It may take some time before he or she gets all the information from you is needed to assist you. (In fact, most good tech support people are very skilled at learning what they need to know about a problem surprisingly quickly.)
Be Polite: Even if you feel you have just bought the biggest piece of junk ever and you are extremely upset about it, the chances are very high that the person who picks up the phone really had nothing to do with it. It's fine to hold the technical support person accountable for the quality of his or her company's products, but it's another thing to vent your spleen on someone who is really in most cases genuinely trying to help. A phrase I sometimes use when I feel flustered is "I know this isn't your fault personally, but I'm very unhappy about this product / your company's action / <whatever>". This sort of tone will usually get a sympathetic response and someone who recognizes a reasonable person who is dissatisfied. Saying something like "I am fed up with you people" or "Your company stinks" will just get the person's back up, the person whom you need to help you. If they think you are just being a jerk, that gives them the subconscious justification to not be nearly as concerned if you are happy or not.
Explain the Problem Clearly and Fully: Be specific when describing the problem. The better you express yourself, the more the other person can help you. If you provide details about the problem instead of generalities like "it doesn't work", this saves the support person from having to drag these details out of you, and gets your problem fixed much more quickly.
Get the Support Person's Name and Number: It is useful to find out the name and phone extension of the person you are talking to. This way, if you have a problem that cannot be resolved in a single session, or if you need to call back with a follow-up call, you won't have to start explaining the situation over again. It's also very helpful in the event that you get accidentally disconnected. Ask at the beginning of the call--that way they won't think you're taking the information to "get them in trouble" for some reason. Note that many companies do not allow their technical support people to give out their name and number so this may not work.
Be Persistent If You Are Being Pushed Off: While most technical support people recognize how important their job is and how much what they do reflects on their company, there are always some bad apples out there. Sometimes you may get the definite impression that the person on the other end of the line is just trying to get rid of you. Some indications of this are a surly attitude, trying to blame the problem on totally unrelated hardware or software, or giving bogus instructions that will take a long time and probably will not result in any improvement. For example, some technicians think the solution to any problem related even remotely to Windows 95 is to re-install it. This may fix some problems, but telling you to do that without first exploring easier solutions is a sign of sheer laziness. Be persistent (but not impolite) in your attempts to get a reasonable solution to your predicament. Ask to speak to a manager if the person becomes difficult or abusive.

VII. Electric and Power Supply

A power supply is a device that supplies electric power to an electrical load. The term is most commonly applied to electric power converters that convert one form of electrical energy to another, though it may also refer to devices that convert another form of energy (mechanical, chemical, solar) to electrical energy. A regulated power supply is one that controls the output voltage or current to a specific value; the controlled value is held nearly constant despite variations in either load current or the voltage supplied by the power supply's energy source.


Every power supply must obtain the energy it supplies to its load, as well as any energy it consumes while performing that task, from an energy source. Depending on its design, a power supply may obtain energy from:


· Electrical energy transmission systems. Common examples of this include power supplies that convert AC line voltage to DC voltage.


· Energy storage devices such as batteries and fuel cells.


· Electromechanical systems such as generators and alternators.


· Solar power.


A power supply may be implemented as a discrete, stand-alone device or as an integral device that is hardwired to its load. Examples of the latter case include the low voltage DC power supplies that are part of desktop computers and consumer electronics devices.


Commonly specified power supply attributes include:


· The amount of voltage and current it can supply to its load.


· How stable its output voltage or current is under varying line and load conditions.


· How long it can supply energy without refueling or recharging (applies to power supplies that employ portable energy sources).


Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and flow of electric charge. Electricity gives a wide variety of well-known effects, such as lightning,static electricity, electromagnetic induction and the flow of electrical current. In addition, electricity permits the creation and reception of electromagnetic radiation such as radio waves.


In electricity, charges produce electromagnetic fields which act on other charges. Electricity occurs due to several types of physics:


· electric charge: a property of some subatomic particles, which determines their electromagnetic interactions. Electrically charged matter is influenced by, and produces, electromagnetic fields.


· electric current: a movement or flow of electrically charged particles, typically measured in amperes.


· electric field (see electrostatics): an especially simple type of electromagnetic field produced by an electric charge even when it is not moving (i.e., there is no electric current). The electric field produces a force on other charges in its vicinity. Moving charges additionally produce a magnetic field.


· electric potential: the capacity of an electric field to do work on an electric charge, typically measured in volts.


· electromagnets: electrical currents generate magnetic fields, and changing magnetic fields generate electrical currents


In electrical engineering, electricity is used for:


· electric power where electric current is used to energize equipment


· electronics which deals with electrical circuits that involve active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and integrated circuits, and associated passive interconnection technologies.


Electrical phenomena have been studied since antiquity, though advances in the science were not made until the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. Practical applications for electricity however remained few, and it would not be until the late nineteenth century that engineers were able to put it to industrial and residential use. The rapid expansion in electrical technology at this time transformed industry and society. Electricity's extraordinary versatility as a means of providing energy means it can be put to an almost limitless set of applications which include transport, heating, lighting, communications, and computation. Electrical power is the backbone of modern industrial society. 

VIII. Parts of the Computer

Motherboard parts and functions

Firewire header

Firewire is also known as IEEE 1394. It is basically a high performance serial bus for digital and audio equipment to exchange data. The technology preceded USB but yet is faster than any current USB port. Often used for transferring digital video to the PC straight from a digital camera. The FireWire header onboard means you can install a FireWire port on your machine. Again these cables are often supplied as an optional extra which you will need to check with the retailer to see if they are supplied with your board.

PCI Express 16x slots

Now the most common slot for Graphics cards, the PCI Express 16x slots provides 16 separate lanes     or data transfer. PCI express 1.0 slots offer a data transfer rate of 250MB/s the second generation  of PCI express (PCI Express 2.0) offers twice the data rate at 500MB/s. Currently in development is PCI Express 3.0 which offers 1GB/s of data transfer. PCI Express 16x slots are also the basis for both SLI and Crossfire multi graphics card setups. With the increasing demands graphics cards are putting on systems, no less than a 16 lane slot will be good enough for any modern graphics card.

CPU (Central Processing Unit) socket

All the CPU "sockets look very similar, however they are different in the way they have different amount of pins and in different layouts. There are currently two major CPU socket types PGA and LGA. PGA or Pin Grad Array uses a system of pins on the CPU and holes on the socket to line up and hold a CPU in place. The introduction of the ZIF (Zero Insertion Force) socket for PGA types allowed the CPU's to be lined up without any pressure on the CPU until a level is pulled down. LGA or Land Grid Array uses a system of gold plated copper pads that make contact with the motherboard. It is very important to read your motherboard manual to discover what types of CPU's you motherboard supports as most motherboards are aimed at a specific type of CPU.

DIMM (Double Inline Memory Module) slots

DIMM's are by far and away the most used memory types in today's computers. They vary in speeds and standards however and they need to match up to what your motherboard has been designed to take. The four standards of DIMM's being used at the moment are SDR (Single Data Rate), DDR (Double Data Rate), DDR2 and DDR3. The speeds of memory can vary between 66Mhz to 1600Mhz.

Motherboard controls

Not available on all motherboards, but some allow direct control of the motherboard via simple buttons. Power switch, error checking, CMOS clearing, passwords and more features can be accessed directly on the motherboard on some models.

Chipset - South Bridge

When we talk about chipsets you mainly only ever hear about the North bridge. Even those into PC technology have a hard time naming the south bridges without looking them up. Names like Nforce 2 and KT600 are North bridges. The South Bridge does an important job as well. It handles things like the PCI bus, onboard Network and sound chips as well as the IDE and S-ATA buses.

Chipset - North Bridge (with heatsink)

The Motherboards chipset can be described as what sets it apart from other boards in its category. Different chipsets contain different features and components. A chipset is a number of integrated circuits built onto the board to provide specific functions e.g. one part of the chipset may be an onboard component such as a modem or sound chip. Other parts may be used to control the CPU functions. Most chipsets are designed to work with only one "class" of CPU although now many older chipsets support more than one type of CPU such as socket 7 which supports the Pentium, Cyrix 686, Cyrix MII, AMD K6 and K6-2. There are certain restrictions though to what type of processor a chipset can handle because of the logic that the CPU uses to access the memory and its cache etc. Since these chips are working harder with each generation, motherboard manufacturers have started to put heatsinks and active coolers (fans) on the main parts of the chipset to disperse some of the heat. For more information on chipsets see our What does a chipset do article.

Serial ATA Connector

Serial ATA or more commonly seen as S-ATA is a new way of connecting your Hard Drives to your PC. S-ATA drives have the capability of being faster than the IDE counterparts and also have smaller thinner cables which help with the airflow of the system. S-ATA hard disks are fast becoming the norm for hard drive technology. Current motherboards feature both IDE and S-ATA connectors to facilitate all types of storage hardware.

USB 2.0 header

As well as having USB ports on the rear of the motherboard, motherboard manufacturers often add a couple of USB headers so you can connect optional cables for extra USB ports. These cables are often supplied and you only need to add them on if you need the extra connectivity. USB 2.0 replaced USB 1.1 as a much faster solution. It is backwards compatible meaning all USB 1.1 devices will work in these new USB 2.0 ports.

Motherboard Battery

The battery gives the board a small amount of power in order to store some vital data on your machine when the power is off. Data stored is that like the time and date so you don't have to reset them every time you boot the machine up. Motherboard batteries are usually long lasting Lithium batteries. Removing this can reset all the data on your machine including the BIOS settings, however not replacing this correctly can lead to irreparable damage to the motherboard. Only remove the battery if it is dead or if you can't have access any other way to resetting the data on your machine by use of the clear CMOS jumper or something similar.

PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) slot

The PCI bus (not PCI express) is now an older technology and although the PCI slots are still available, they have decreased in number and are being replaced by the PCI Express 1x slots. Its unlikely that you will get a motherboard without a PCI slot at the moment due to the fact that a lot of components still use the standard PCI slot. It would be awkward to upgrade to a system without PCI slots as it may mean upgrading more components than you would like to

Floppy Drive Connector

More simple than the IDE connector you only have to remember to get the red line to pin 1 of the connector and the red line to pin 1 on the floppy drive, This port is only to be used with floppy drives. You may not have a floppy controller on your motherboard as its slowly being phased out as more people are using writable CD's and DVDs to transfer data, to store data and to use as boot up discs.

IDE connector Not on Diagram

The connector to which you will insert an IDE cable (supplied with motherboard) IDE cables connect devices such as hard disks, CD Drives and DVD Drives. The current 4 standards of IDE devices are ATA 33/66/100 and 133. the numbers specify the amount of data in Mb/s in a max burst situation. In reality there is not much chance of getting a sustain data rate of this magnitude. Both the connectors and devices are backwards compatible with each other, however they will only run at the slowest rated speed between them. All IDE cables will come with a red line down one side, this red line is to show which way it should be plugged in. The red line should always connect to pin one of the IDE port. Checking your motherboard documentation should show you which end is pin one. In some cases it will be written on the board itself.

BIOS (Basic Input Output System) Chip

The BIOS holds the most important data for your machine, if configured incorrectly it could cause your computer not to boot correctly or not at all. The BIOS also informs the PC what the motherboard supports in terms off CPU etc. This is why when a new CPU is introduced that physically fits into a slot or socket you may need a BIOS update to support it. The main reason for this is that different CPU's use different logics and methods and so the BIOS has to understand certain instructions from the CPU to recognize it.

Hard Disk Drive Parts & Functions

The hard disk platters are accessed for read and write operations using theread/write heads mounted on the top and bottom surfaces of each platter. Obviously, the read/write heads don't just float in space; they must be held in an exact position relative to the surfaces they are reading, and furthermore, they must be moved from track to track to allow access to the entire surface of the disk. The heads are mounted onto a structure that facilitates this process. Often called the head assembly or actuator assembly (or even the head-actuator assembly), it is comprised of several different parts.

The heads themselves are mounted on head sliders. The sliders are suspended over the surface of the disk at the ends of the head arms. The head arms are all mechanically fused into a single structure that is moved around the surface of the disk by the actuator. (Sort of like "the leg bone's connected to the knee bone", isn't it? :^) ) It would be an understatement to say that these components are neglected; heck, most people don't even know they exist! Yet they play an important role in the function and performance of the drive. In particular, advances in slider, arm and actuator design are critical to improving the seek time of a hard disk; the impact that the actuator has on performance is discussed in this section.

Head Sliders: 

Hard disk read/write heads are too small to be used without attaching them to a larger unit. This is especially true of modern hard disk heads. Each hard disk head is therefore mounted to a special device called a head slider or just slider for short. The function of the slider is to physically support the head and hold it in the correct position relative to the platter as the head floats over its surface.
Sliders are given a special shape to allow them to ride precisely over the platter. Usually they are shaped somewhat like a sled; there are two rails or runners on the outside that support the slider at the correct flying height over the surface of the disk, and in the middle the read/write head itself is mounted, possibly on another rail.
As hard disk read/write heads have been shrinking in size, so have the sliders that carry them. The main advantage of using small sliders is that it reduces the weight that must be yanked around the surface of the platters, improving both positioning speed and accuracy. Smaller sliders also have less surface area to potentially contact the surface of the disk.

Arm:

This is the classic definition of the arm. Sometimes by the arm imply the whole metal piece of HSA.

Floppy Disk Drive Parts and Functions

Drive Motor

·         The drive motor is a mechanism designed to spin the hub, or the center of the floppy disk. Once the disk starts to spin, data is recorded onto different parts of the magnetic disk.

Stepper Motor

·         This device is attached to the read/write heads on the disk. It is responsible for locating the exact position on the floppy disk on which to read, record or erase data. The stepper motor spins the disk to this exact location before any data is erased or recorded.

Mechanical Frame

·         The little levers that comprise a floppy drive's mechanical frame are designed to expose the magnetic part of a floppy disk by pulling its protective shutter to the side while the disk spins around and records data.

Circuit Board

·         This controls the read/write/erase heads and stepper motor of a floppy drive. It exchanges signals with the computer's main circuit board and based on these signals, determines where on a floppy disk information should be read, stored or erased

USB Flash Drive Parts and Functions

USB Connector

The USB connector is the small, silver extension that extends from the main USB device. The connector is what inserts into the USB port of the computer. Because this part of the USB flash drive is easily damaged, newer USB flash drives come with a switch that pulls the connector into the main compartment. This avoids the problem of the connector melting, accumulating dust or being crushed. The USB connector inserts into any USB port in a computer, or the user can insert it into a hub for devices on a machine.

Memory Chip

The flash memory chip, a black chip placed on the main circuit board of the USB drive, is what stores the information. This chip is protected by an outer case. These cases are sometimes clear, so the user can see the flash memory chip on the USB drive's circuit board. The flash memory chip contains different amounts of memory, depending on the device purchased. Flash drives started with a capacity of a few megabytes, but they continue to increase in capacity. Flash drives can hold gigabytes of information of flash memory chips.

Compact Disk Parts and Functions

Mirror band

This is the ring area just inside of the main print area. The mirror band is not encoded with data so it has a different reflective quality, appearing darker than any other part of the compact disc. Generally the mirror band is etched with the name of the manufacturer, as well as a number or barcode identification associated with the client audio master. The effect of printing on the mirror band is a darkening of the text or images as compared to that of the main print area. Just inside of the mirror band is the stacking ring.

Stacking ring
On the underside of each disc, this thin ring of raised plastic is used to keep a small amount of space between each disc when stacked up for boxing and/or shipping. It prevents the flat surfaces from scraping against each other, which could scratch either the printed tops or the readable bottoms of the discs. Even though it is on the underside, some manufacturers are unable to print over the stacking ring area due to a small "trough" created on the top surface when they mold their discs. Other manufacturers mold compact discs that are smooth on the top and have no problem printing over the stacking ring area.

Hub
This is the innermost portion of the disc, made of clear plastic, and includes the stacking ring. Printing over the hub area is similar to the effect of printing on transparency media. The lighter the color, the more the transparency effect is present, due to the small, widely spaced print dots that are used to produce light colors. With heavy ink coverage over the hub, the transparency is far less noticeable. However, all colors will appear different when printed over the clear plastic hub as compared to the other opaque surfaces of the compact disc.

Digital Versatile Disk

digital versatile disc or digital video disc (DVD), a small plastic disc used for the storage of digital data. The successor media to the compact disc (CD), a DVD can have more than 100 times the storage capacity of a CD. When compared to CD technology, DVD also allows for better graphics and greater resolution. In the case of an audio recording, where the data to be stored is in analog rather than digital form, the sound signal is sampled at a rate of 48,000 or 96,000 times a second, then each sample is measured and digitally encoded on the 43/4-in. (12-cm) disc as a series of microscopic pits on an otherwise polished surface. The disc is covered with a protective, transparent coating so that it can be read by a laser beam. As with other optical disks nothing touches the encoded portion, and the DVD is not worn out by the playing process. Because DVD players are backward compatible to existing technologies, they can play CD and CD-ROM discs; however, CD players cannot play DVD and DVD-ROM discs.

DVD formats include DVD-Video (often simply called DVD), DVD-ROM, and DVD-Audio. DVD-Video discs hold digitized movies or video programs and are played using a DVD player hooked up to a standard television receiver. In a sense, DVD-Video players are the successors to the video casette recorders (VCRs) that play VHS tapes. DVD-ROM [ R ead O nly M emory] discs hold computer data and are read by a DVD-ROM drive hooked up to a computer. These disks can only be read—the disks are impressed with data at the factory but once written cannot be erased and rewritten with new data. DVD-ROM also includes recordable variations. DVD-R and DVD+R[ R ecordable] discs can be written to sequentially but only once. DVD-RAM [ R andom A ccess M emory], DVD-RW, and DVD+RW [ R e W ritable] discs can be written to thousands of times; they differ in their technical standards and, as a result, in the amount of information they can hold. Dual layer disks, such as DVD-R DL, record data on two different layers within the disk. Many DVD recorders can record in several different recordable DVD formats. Some recorders include computer hard drives that allow the user to record tens to hundreds of hours of material temporarily; the user can then select the material that will be transferred to a DVD. When DVD was released in 1996 there was no DVD-Audio format, although the audio capabilities of DVD-Video far surpassed those available from a CD; the DVD-Audio format was introduced in 1999.

Blu-ray Disk

Blu-ray Disc (BD) is an optical disc storage medium designed to supersede the DVD format. The plastic disc is 120 mm in diameter and 1.2 mm thick, the same size as DVD sand CDs. Conventional (pre-BD-XL) Blu-ray Discs contain 25 GB per layer, with dual layer discs (50 GB) being the industry standard for feature-length video discs. Triple layer discs (100 GB) and quadruple layers (150 GB) are available for BD-XL re-writer drives. The name Blu-ray Disc refers to the blue laser used to read the disc, which allows information to be stored at a greater density than is possible with the longer-wavelength red laser used for DVDs. The major application of Blu-ray Discs is as a medium for video material such as feature films. Besides the hardware specifications, Blu-ray Disc is associated with a set of multimedia formats. Generally, these formats allow for the video and audio to be stored with greater definition than on DVD.

The format was developed by the Blu-ray Disc Association, a group representing makers of consumer electronics, computer hardware, and motion pictures. The first Blu-ray Disc prototypes were unveiled in October 2000, and the first prototype player was released in April 2003 in Japan. Afterwards, it continued to be developed until its official release in June 2006. As of June 2011, more than 2,500 Blu-ray Disc titles were available in Australia and the United Kingdom, with 3,500 in the United States and Canada. In Japan, as of July 2010, more than 3,300 titles have been released.

During the high definition optical disc format war, Blu-ray Disc competed with the HD DVDformat. Toshiba, the main company that supported HD DVD, conceded in February 2008, releasing its own Blu-ray Disc player in late 2009.

IX. CMOS Manipulation

A new type of microfluidic system for biological cell manipulation, a CMOS/microfluidic hybrid,

is demonstrated. The hybrid system starts with a custom-designed CMOS (complementary metaloxide semiconductor) chip fabricated in a semiconductor foundry using standard integration circuit

technology. A microfluidic channel is post-fabricated on top of the CMOS chip to provide

biocompatible environment. The motion of individual biological cells that are tagged with

magnetic beads is directly controlled by the CMOS chip that generates localized magnetic field

patterns using an on-chip array of micro-electromagnets. The speed and the programmability of the

CMOS chip further allow for the dynamic reconfiguration of the magnetic fields, substantially

increasing the manipulation capability of the hybrid system. The concept of a hybrid system is

verified by simultaneously manipulating individual biological cells with microscopic resolution. A

new operation protocol that exploits the fast speed of electronics to trap and move a large number

of cells with less power consumption is also demonstrated. Combining the advantages of

microelectronics and microfluidics, the CMOS/microfluidic hybrid approach presents a new model

for a multifunctional lab-on-a-chip for biological and biomedical applications.

X. Beep Codes and Error Messages

Frequently Asked Questions

Q: What are the BIOS beep codes and error messages for the Gateway 9315 Server?

A: During POST, the BIOS indicates the current testing phase by writing a hex code to I/O location 80h. If errors are encountered, either error beep codes or error messages are produced.

• If an error occurs prior to video initialization, it is reported through a series of audio beep codes.
• If an error occurs after video initialization, the error is displayed on the video screen.

Refer to the following tables for more information on BIOS error beep codes and error messages.

BIOS generated POST error beep codes (prior to video initialization)

POST error messages (after video initialization)

In the following table, the response section is divided into three types:
• Warning: The message is displayed on the screen and the error is logged to the SEL. The system continues booting with a degraded state.
• Pause: The message is displayed on the screen and the boot process is paused until the appropriate input is given to either continue the boot process or to take corrective action.
• Halt: The message is displayed on the screen, an error is logged to the SEL, and the system cannot boot unless the error is corrected.

XI. Network Cabling

Networking cables are used to connect one network device to other network devices or to connect two or more computers to share printer, scanner etc. Different types of network cables like Coaxial cable, Optical fiber cable, Twisted Pair cables are used depending on the network's topology, protocol and size. The devices can be separated by a few meters (e.g. via Ethernet) or nearly unlimited distances (e.g. via the interconnections of the Internet).

While wireless may be the wave of the future, most computer networks today still utilize cables to transfer signals from one point to another

Twisted pair

Twisted pair cabling is a form of wiring in which two wires (the forward and return conductors of a single circuit) are twisted together for the purposes of canceling out electromagnetic interference(EMI) from external sources. This type of cable is used for home and corporate Internet networks. Twisted pair cables consist of two insulated copper wires. There are three types of twisted pair cables: Shielded, Unshielded and Foiled.

Optical fiber cable

An optical fiber cable consists of a center glass core surrounded by several layers of protective material. The outer insulating jacket is made of Teflon or PVC to prevent interference. It is expensive but has higher bandwidth and can transmit data over longer distances.

Coaxial cable

Coaxial lines confine the electromagnetic wave to area inside the cable, between the center conductor and the shield. The transmission of energy in the line occurs totally through the dielectric inside the cable between the conductors. Coaxial lines can therefore be bent and twisted (subject to limits) without negative effects, and they can be strapped to conductive supports without inducing unwanted currents in them and though.

The most common use for coaxial cables is for television and other signals with bandwidth of multiple megahertz. Although in most homes coaxial cables have been installed for transmission of TV signals, new technologies (such as the ITU-T G.hn standard) open the possibility of using home coaxial cable for high-speed home networking applications (Ethernet over coax).

In the 20th century they carried long distance telephone connections.

XII. Computer Networking

A computer network, or simply a network, is a collection of computers and network hardware interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing of resources and information. When a process in one device is able to exchange information with a process in another device, the two devices are said to be networked. A network is a group of devices connected to each other. Networks may be classified by the following characteristics: the media used to transmit signals, the communications protocols used to organize network traffic, network scale, network topology, benefits, and organizational scope.
Communication protocols define the rules and data formats for exchanging information in a computer network. Well-known communications protocols include Ethernet, a hardware and link layer standard that is widely used for local area networks, and the Internet protocol suite (TCP/IP), which defines a set of protocols for communication between multiple networks, for host-to-host data transfer, and for application-specific data transmission formats. Protocols provide the basis for network programming.
Computer networking can be considered a branch of electrical engineering, telecommunications, computer science,information technology or computer engineering, since it relies upon the theoretical and practical application of the related disciplines.

XIII. Network Topology

Network topology is the arrangement of the various elements (links, nodes, etc.) of a computer or biological network. Essentially, it is the topological structure of a network, and may be depicted physically or logically. Physical topology refers to the placement of the network's various components, including device location and cable installation, while logical topology shows how data flows within a network, regardless of its physical design. Distances between nodes, physical interconnections, transmission rates, and/or signal types may differ between two networks, yet their topologies may be identical.

A good example is a local area network (LAN): Any given node in the LAN has one or more physical links to other devices in the network; graphically mapping these links results in a geometric shape that can be used to describe the physical topology of the network. Conversely, mapping the data flow between the components determines the logical topology of the network.

XIV. Data/Resource Sharing

Resource Sharing Plans

NIH considers the sharing of unique research resources developed through NIH-sponsored 

research an important means to enhance the value and further the advancement of the 

research. When resources have been developed with NIH funds and the associated research 

findings published or provided to NIH, it is important that they be made readily available for 

research purposes to qualified individuals within the scientific community.

Reviewer Information

Reviewers will comment on whether the Resource Sharing Plans listed below, or the 

rationale for not sharing the following types of resources, are reasonable

Unless specified otherwise in the Funding Opportunity Announcement, consideration of 

these plans should not affect the overall impact score

For more information, visit the NIH Sharing Policies and Related Guidance on NIH–

Funded Research Resources

Data Sharing Plan

A Data Sharing Plan or an explanation of why data sharing is not feasible is expected 

to be included in all applications where the generation of data is anticipated

Unless stated otherwise in the Funding Opportunity Announcement, applications 

requesting more than $500,000 direct costs in any year of the proposed research are 

expected to include a data sharing plan in their application

Certain Funding Opportunity Announcements may request a data sharing plan for all 

applications regardless of the amount of direct costs

Reviewers should assess the reasonableness of the data sharing plan or the rationale 

for not sharing research data (see Data Sharing Guidance)

Sharing Model Organisms 

The submission of a model organism sharing plan is NOT subject to a cost threshold of 

$500,000 or more in direct costs in any one year

All NIH grant applications where the development of model organisms is anticipated 

are expected to include a description of a specific plan for sharing and distributing 

unique model organism research resources generated using NIH funding or state why 

such sharing is restricted or not possible

Reviewers should assess the plan for sharing model organisms or the rationale for why 

such sharing is restricted or not possible (see Sharing Model Organisms)

Genome Wide Association Studies (GWAS)

Applications that include GWAS, regardless of the requested costs, are expected to 

include either a plan for submission of GWAS data to the NIH designated data 

repository or an appropriate explanation for why submission to the repository will not 

be possible

Reviewers should assess the plan for submission of GWAS data or the explanation for 

why submission to the repository is not possible (see GWAS)

XV.Latest Gadgets

Cloud gaming with OnLive Announcement of the launching – 22nd of September, in UK – brings OnLive officially in Europe! The event will take place at the Eurogamer Expo, in London, and it promised to reveal a package of over 100 new games for games devourers. Let’s take a short look of what does cloud gaming actually mean for OnLive: - Easy access from anywhere - Gamers can play from any device: PC, mac, TV or any tablet - Users don’t have to hold an up-to-date system configuration to play a “last generation game”, because their system is just an interface of the game. The game is actually played in real time, on the OnLive’s powerful servers, within its datacenters. It will be needed an OnLive system which adapts games to run on the TVs - There is access to free instant demo-games for you to play or for you to watch as others play, with the possibility of voice chat - No more game-downloading, no further need of disks or any other special hardware - Facebook integration. Broadband is a key-factor regarding video quality and the required speed is 2Mbps. The issue that came out in USA was also raised in UK – the delay. This is caused by lag and latency, which was officially recognized by the CEO of OnLive (Steve Perlman) to be 35-40ms, though in the US there were found played games at 200ms latency. If you want to play a game, you can just rent it for a short time, buy it for unlimited play time, or pay an amount of money for 3 days, 5 days or a month of game access. But if you can make it to the event, OnLive promised to give thousands of Game Systems to the participants for free. Microsoft is launching the hub term in its Windows Phone 7. So it has: - People Hub: referring to friends, there is not just a list of contacts. Windows Phone 7 integrates a person’s Facebook, Twitter, LinkedIn and Windows Live profiles and tells you right up to date everything that is new for each person in your list. - Similar to this is unification of the messaging inbox, which allows the user to easily see all the text he receives, but in a smart way, divided in personal (social network messages, personal email accounts and so on) and business (Outlook) - Pictures Hub: collects your entire taken photos (which you can shot even if the phone is locked!) and even your friends’ posted photos on the social networks. - Games Hub: besides playing whatever game you desire, you can create a gamer profile and go online through Xbox live to meet other gamers. Your scores will always be remembered! - Media Hubs: music and video collections, among PC wireless synchronization. - Office Hub: because it is the only phone with Office Mobile, Windows Phone 7 is detaching you from your PC: you can reach all you need: from Word, Excel and PowerPoint to OneNote and SharePoint. - Marketplace Hub One of the breakthroughs is the built in Bing, which helps the user with maps and search. The search actually does the work for you: - It can scan a bar code and find any related thing you would want to know about that particular item: where does it come from, where can you find it, what does it contains, what is the price, reviews, etc. - It can locate you and suggest to you: nearest places to visit, or nearest restaurants, shopping center, trains, locations – it is a life saver! As a browser it uses IE9, it runs instantaneously and it is multitasking. Last but not least, it has the smart possibility to Find Phone – if you lose your phone, you can remotely write a massage on it, locate it, lock it or erase thing Razer Megasoma 2 Mouse Mat When it comes to gaming peripherals, I am quite sure that many folks would have the name Razer clearly embedded within their kinds, and for obvious reasons, too. Well, here we are with something that most folks tend to overlook as they concentrate more on the hardware power underneath the hood, in addition to the size of their monitor, and of course, who can leave out a thumping audio system to complement the awesome graphics? You will also need a decent gaming keyboard that has enough memory for a plethora of macro controls, while a gaming mouse which works best to the genre of games that you play is also important. Having said that, the kind of surface which your gaming mouse glides over is also important, and this is where Razer’s latest achievement, the Razer Megasoma 2 Mouse Mat, comes in handy. Sonic-connect 2 helps your messages get organized We live in an extremely busy world these days, where our attention tend to be pulled in different directions, and the kind of mobile devices that we own allow us to be in constant communication with other folks round the clock, so much so that sometimes, we tend to experience a condition that I would say amounts to information overload. Emails, Facebook messages, text messages, tweets, Instagram photos, there are just too many avenues available to get swamped with information, so what are some of the tools available to help those of us who are swimming in messages and communication loops? Sonic Alert’s Sonic-connect 2 might just do the trick, with this being a portable USB device that is said to alert you to the most important incoming messages which arrive on your computer. XVI.Reference http://www.pantherproducts.co.uk/index.php?pageid=motherboardparts http://hddscan.com/doc/HDD_from_inside.html http://support.gateway.com/s/servers/compo/motherbd/wme859199/wme859199faq2.shtml http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Networking_cables http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_topology http://grants.nih.gov/grants/peer/guidelines_general/Resource_sharing_plans.pdf